Practical Guide to Software Quality Management (Artech House Computing Library)

We now have an idea of the kinds of attacks your host will face. Management has made it clear what resources are important, what must be protected, and what is too expensive to protect. What we're left with is a bunch of risks that need mitigation. We know that to mitigate the risks, we have to balance security needs against required functionality and convenience. We also know that the more critical the resource, the more effort we should go through in securing systems. So let's bring this all into focus in terms of FreeBSD and OpenBSD system administration.

This book is about "doing security" for your BSD systems. This book presents one major framework for building security into your BSD system deployments: security through the system lifecycle. What does this mean? Well, this is a daunting undertaking, to be sure. To make these kinds of tasks easier, we break them into discrete parts; building a secure initial configuration, performing ongoing maintenance, and auditing and incident response.

1.4.1. Initial Configuration

Secure initial configuration is an obvious topic when discussing system-level security. And why not? A host with a secure initial configuration is more likely to stay that way. Careful installation and good decisions early on will leave you with a well- configured, fairly secure system. There is a strong motivation to be diligent in ongoing maintenance because it is easier to maintain a clean slate than it is to solve security issues while not breaking functionality. Furthermore, well-maintained systems who were built from secure initial configurations assist in containment. An attacker that manages to break into a well-maintained box somehow will have a hard time continuing his assault because unneeded services are disabled, file permissions are carefully controlled, and applications are tightly secured.

Properly configuring a host requires a solid understanding of the technology at hand. Unless an administrator knows the ins and outs of the core operating system and the applications running on it, she will not be able to know what actions to take to lock down the host. While there are plenty of host-lockdown templates on the Web for various operating systems, none of them is a one-size-fits-all solution. Administrators often blindly follow security templates only to make their host so secure that it becomes unusable. Or, they follow a template that doesn't apply well to their actual situation. It gives them a feeling of added security because they took proactive security initiatives. But its poor applicability means they have left important weaknesses unaddressed. We urge you to understand the service you are trying to provide and the risks associated with it. From there you can figure out how to appropriately lockdown your system.

Initial configuration is a common area of focus for many books. Configuration is very tangible and the myriad options can be very confusing. Every application has its own unique options and architecture considerations. On any modern OS, there are many applications and aspects to the core system that require specific attention. Authors and readers find it easy to focus on these issues because there is so much ground to cover.

However, securing the initial configuration is not the only aspect of system security. System security is a complicated subject, users rarely see the big picture. Even systems that are thought to have a secure initial configuration can be administered poorly, eventually causing gaps in the security stance of the machine. It is important to look beyond secure configuration options and think about the broader security picture.

Building a secure initial configuration, as far as the operating system is concerned, is the primary focus of Chapter 3. Every application-specific chapter in this book will also focus on the secure initial configuration of the relevant application.

1.4.2. Ongoing Maintenance

Regardless of the role a host plays, once it is deployed, it begins to change. Managing this change is key in maintaining the integrity and security of the host. Assuming you have paid attention to the details of configuring the host, it is in a known good state when it is deployed. Every service request, attempted attack, applied patch, and administrative login has the potential to change the security stance of the machine.

Staying ahead of this change requires a disciplined and coordinated effort. For instance, patch management procedures need to be in place long before you start applying patches. Vendor patches are often released in response to a vulnerability discovered and announced in a public forum. From the point a vulnerability is discovered to the point your systems are patched, the security of your host is a matter of chance. A worm may be written to automatically crawl through the Internet exploiting this vulnerability. An attacker may use the vulnerability to target your organization directly. Thus response to security advisories must be quick and effective.

While this may sound simple as a concept, in practice, patching can be very disruptive. Patches may interrupt service when they are installed. They may even have adverse effects that force you to roll the patch out of your systems until the effects can be mitigated. Successful patch management is not simply composed of technical aspects like how to download and install the patch. Patch management includes regression testing the patch in a lab, getting buy-in from stakeholders and assuring them that the patch will not interfere with organizational operations, and being prepared to roll back when necessary. By understanding the subtleties in patch management, you are helping ensure the security of a host over the long haul.

Other issues, such as using secure transport mechanisms when accessing a host for administrative purposes and proper user management, are also vital for the long-term security of a host. Understanding the ins and outs of secure management is critical on any platform. Implementing these secure management processes can vary dramatically depending on the operating system and applications being used. Luckily, FreeBSD and OpenBSD have a long history of being very maintainable systems. These operating systems are implemented in a manner that makes keeping them secure straightforward and relatively easy to upgrade when security vulnerabilities are discovered.

System maintenance with a goal of maintaining system security is the primary topic of Chapter 4.

1.4.3. Auditing and Incident Response

Sometimes, bad things will happen to good hosts. Even with a secure initial configuration and proper administration techniques, an attacker will periodically successfully bypass the security perimeter of a host. At the very least, auditing will help you determine when you're dealing with an incident. You then need to be prepared to ensure service is restored as rapidly as possible and the damage contained.

Proper incident response relies on both technical and business knowledge. On the technical side, individuals responding to a security incident must have a playbook already created that describes how to get machines redeployed in a secure fashion. Every incident will differ to some extent causing changes in the original plan to restore service. By understanding the core operating system, the applications running, and the manner of attack being executed, an administrator responding to an incident can modify the path to recovery to match the attack that was used.

From a business perspective, the administrator needs to understand the impact the attack has on the business and react accordingly. For instance, if a new product has recently been deployed on the web servers, restoring service immediately may take precedence over preserving the attacker's footprints. Or if an attacker has a history with your organization, you may want to verify that you have a complete audit trail of her actions before restoring servers to known good states. Security is a means to an end. The organization's goals are the ultimate end in most cases, so your actions when responding to an incident should reflect that.

After an incident has been contained through proper response, there may be forensic work required. Some organizations choose to analyze the technical aspect of every incident in an effort to learn what actions the attacker took. This allows them to determine the real loss caused by the attack as well as whether or not civil and criminal chargers should be pursued. Other organizations generally do not do forensic investigation unless the attack is obviously damaging enough to pursue legal action. These types of organizations have determined that the reward for the investigation does not normally warrant the effort required to determine what the attacker has done.

Regardless of your organization's stance on incident response, you may be called upon to perform forensic analysis of a compromised host. The level of diligence required when performing analysis will vary depending on if the investigation is internal or if the data will be used in a court of law. However, from a technical perspective, performing a forensic analysis requires deep technical knowledge of the structure and operation of the operating systems and applications in question. It also requires understanding of the tricks attackers may use to hide or store data and processes.

Forensic analysis is really detective work. It involves looking for clues and understanding the motivation of the attacker. It also involves knowledge of how things work. The lead character in any TV detective show is not just a good interrogator. These fictitious detectives generally have years of broad fictitious experience they can leverage to solve heinous fictitious crimes. Examining a compromised host is very similar; but your experience had better be real and the more you know when you start the analysis, the better analysis you will be able to perform.

Auditing and incident response are the major focuses in the last section of this book.