Hacking Exposed 5th Edition

Some feel drugs are about the only thing more addicting than obtaining root access on a UNIX system. The pursuit of root access dates back to the early days of UNIX, so we need to provide some historical background on its evolution.

THE QUEST FOR ROOT

In 1969, Ken Thompson, and later Dennis Ritchie, of AT&T, decided that the MULTICS (Multiplexed Information and Computing System) project wasn't progressing as fast as they would have liked . Their decision to "hack up" a new operating system called UNIX forever changed the landscape of computing. UNIX was intended to be a powerful, robust, multiuser operating system that excelled at running programs specifically , small programs called tools. Security was not one of UNIX's primary design characteristics, although UNIX does have a great deal of security if implemented properly. UNIX's promiscuity was a result of the open nature of developing and enhancing the operating system kernel, as well as the small tools that made this operating system so powerful. The early UNIX environments were usually located inside Bell Labs or in a university setting where security was controlled primarily by physical means. Thus, any user who had physical access to a UNIX system was considered authorized. In many cases, implementing root-level passwords was considered a hindrance and dismissed.

While UNIX and UNIX-derived operating systems have evolved considerably over the past 30 years , the passion for UNIX and UNIX security has not subsided. Many ardent developers and code hackers scour source code for potential vulnerabilities. Furthermore, it is a badge of honor to post newly discovered vulnerabilities to security mailing lists such as Bugtraq. In this chapter, we will explore this fervor to determine how and why the coveted root access is obtained. Throughout this chapter, remember that UNIX has two levels of access: the all-powerful root and everything else. There is no substitute for root!

A Brief Review

You may recall in Chapters 1 through 3 that we discussed ways to identify UNIX systems and enumerate information. We used port scanners such as nmap to help identify open TCP/UDP ports, as well as to fingerprint the target operating system or device. We used rpcinfo and showmount to enumerate RPC service and NFS mount points, respectively. We even used the all-purpose netcat (nc) to grab banners that leak juicy information, such as the applications and associated versions in use. In this chapter, we will explore the actual exploitation and related techniques of a UNIX system. It is important to remember that footprinting and network reconnaissance of UNIX systems must be done before any type of exploitation. Footprinting must be executed in a thorough and methodical fashion to ensure that every possible piece of information is uncovered. Once we have this information, we need to make some educated guesses about the potential vulnerabilities that may be present on the target system. This process is known as vulnerability mapping .

Vulnerability Mapping

Vulnerability mapping is the process of mapping specific security attributes of a system to an associated vulnerability or potential vulnerability. This is a critical phase in the actual exploitation of a target system that should not be overlooked. It is necessary for attackers to map attributes such as listening services, specific version numbers of running servers (for example, Apache 1.3.9 being used for HTTP, and sendmail 8.9.10 being used for SMTP), system architecture, and username information to potential security holes. Attackers can use several methods to accomplish this task:

• They can manually map specific system attributes against publicly available sources of vulnerability information, such as Bugtraq, Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) advisories (http://www.cert.org), and vendor security alerts. Although this is tedious , it can provide a thorough analysis of potential vulnerabilities without actually exploiting the target system.

• Attackers can use public exploit code posted to various security mailing lists and any number of websites , or they can write their own code. This will determine the existence of a real vulnerability with a high degree of certainty .

• They can use automated vulnerability scanning tools, such as nessus (http://www.nessus.org), to identify true vulnerabilities.

All these methods have their pros and cons. However, it is important to remember that only uneducated attackers, known as script kiddies, will skip the vulnerability mapping stage by throwing everything and the kitchen sink at a system to get in without knowing how and why an exploit works. We have witnessed many real-life attacks where the perpetrators were trying to use UNIX exploits against a Windows NT system. Needless to say, these attackers were inexpert and unsuccessful . The following list summarizes key points to consider when performing vulnerability mapping:

• Perform network reconnaissance against the target system.

• Map attributes such as operating system, architecture, and specific versions of listening services to known vulnerabilities and exploits.

• Perform target acquisition by identifying and selecting key systems.

• Enumerate and prioritize potential points of entry.